Chapter Essence
This chapter examines India's inclusive growth journey under 'Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Prayas, Sabka Vishwas' — tracking measurable gains in poverty reduction, narrowing inequalities, and improved access to basic services. The central thesis is that rural transformation, powered by infrastructure investment, employment frameworks, digital technology, and community participation, is shifting from government-led schemes to community-driven initiatives. The chapter progresses from poverty metrics and social sector spending to rural economy revitalisation, Panchayati Raj governance, livelihoods through SHGs, and social justice for the most marginalised — PVTGs, PwDs, manual scavengers, and minorities — making the case that social mobility is both an equity and an efficiency argument for inclusive development.
11.28%
MPI 2022-23 (NITI Aayog)
2.3%
Poverty Rate 2023-24 (Tendulkar Line)
64.3%
Social Protection Coverage 2025
90.90 L
SHGs Promoted (DAY-NRLM)
6,25,117 km
Roads Completed (PMGSY-I)
3.70 Cr
Rural Houses Completed (11 Years)
81.31%
Rural HH with Tap Water (JJM)
9 Cr
Pension Beneficiaries (NSAP+States)
183.77 Cr
MGNREGS Person-Days FY26 (till Dec 2025)
₹11.92 L Cr
Bank Credit to SHGs (Cumulative)
Poverty and inequality are assessed through multiple international and domestic benchmarks. Social mobility — both inter-generational and intra-generational — is the overarching goal, with health, education, technology, employment, and social protection as key determinants.
World Bank International Poverty Line (IPL) — June 2025 Revision
- Old line: USD 2.15/day (2017 PPP)
- New line: USD 3.00/day (2021 PPP prices)
- Extreme poverty (2022-23): 5.3% of India's population
- Lower-middle-income poverty: 23.9%
- WB Multidimensional Poverty: 15.5% (2022-23)
- Revision incorporates Household Consumer Expenditure Survey data for India and improved methodology for countries with limited data
NITI Aayog Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
- 2005-06 (NFHS-3): 55.3%
- 2019-21 (NFHS-5): 14.96%
- 2022-23 (estimated): 11.28%
- Measures non-monetary poverty across health, education, living standards
- States with higher MPI in 2015-16 showed greater relative reduction, indicating convergence
- WB's measure adapts from OPHI MPI; excludes nutrition/health deprivation
Tendulkar Committee Poverty Line Estimates: Poverty declined from 21.9% in 2011-12 to 4.7% in 2022-23 and further to 2.3% in 2023-24 (Panagariya & More, 2025). This broad-based decline spans both rural and urban areas across all states.
State-Level Innovations in Poverty Eradication
Bihar
Satat Jeevikoparjan Yojana (SJY) — 2018
- Targets ultra-poor women using the "Graduation Approach"
- 24-month support: asset transfers, capacity-building, livelihood gap assistance, mentoring
- Also provides insurance and public entitlements
- J-PAL study: SJY beneficiaries maintained stable incomes even during COVID-19
Kerala
Kerala Extreme Poverty Alleviation Project (EPEP)
- Community-led identification via ASHA workers, Anganwadi workers, Kudumbashree
- Provided Aadhaar, ration cards, UDID cards, health insurance
- Individualised micro-plans with digital tracking by local self-governments
- Kudumbashree acted as both community monitor and service provider
Central Government
Samaveshi Aajeevika Yojana (DAY-NRLM)
- Launched under DAY-NRLM umbrella
- Comprehensive livelihoods programme for rural women
- Built on the Graduation Approach
- Aims at long-term self-sufficiency and resilience
Key Insight on Inequality: Low social mobility entrenches historical inequalities. Higher income inequality fuels lower social mobility — a vicious cycle. Enhancing social mobility converts it into a virtuous cycle yielding positive benefits for economic growth.
SDG NIF Progress Report 2025: Population covered by social protection systems rose from 22% in 2016 to 64.3% in 2025. Rural drinking water access improved from 94.6% (2015-16) to 99.6% (2024-25). Universal household electrification achieved in 2021-22. 100% districts ODF (2019-20); over 96% SBM villages ODF+ (as of December 2025).
General Government Social Services Expenditure (SSE) Trends
| Indicator |
Period |
CAGR / Value |
| Total SSE (Centre + States) |
FY22 to FY26 (BE) |
12% CAGR |
| Expenditure on Education (incl. Sports, Arts, Culture) |
FY22 to FY26 (BE) |
11% CAGR |
| Expenditure on Health (Medical, Family Welfare, Water & Sanitation) |
FY22 to FY26 (BE) |
8% CAGR |
| SSE as % of Total Government Expenditure |
FY26 (BE) |
~26.6% |
| Total SSE as % of GDP |
FY26 (BE) |
~7.9% |
| Education Expenditure as % of GDP |
FY19 to FY26 |
~2.7% to 2.9% |
| Health Expenditure as % of GDP |
FY19 to FY26 |
~1.4% to 1.8% |
Social Services include: Education, sports, art & culture; medical & public health; family welfare; water supply & sanitation; housing; urban development; welfare of SCs, STs, OBCs; labour welfare; social security; nutrition; natural calamity relief.
Why Rising SSE Matters for UPSC
India's SSE growth of 12% CAGR (FY22-FY26) reflects commitment to human capital development alongside physical infrastructure. State governments together contribute a larger share of SSE than the Centre, emphasising cooperative federalism in social development. The SSE rising to ~7.9% of GDP indicates growing fiscal space allocation for inclusive goals — a key data point for essays and GS-3 answers.
India has 6.65 lakh villages and 2.68 lakh Gram Panchayats. NABARD's Rural Economic Conditions and Sentiments Survey (RECSS, November 2025) confirms broad-based strengthening: robust consumption, rising investment, improved formal credit access, and strong infrastructure satisfaction. Rural consumption has risen to its highest in 17 quarters.
MGNREGS and Its Reform: VB G-RAM G Act, 2025
MGNREGS Demand Decline — A Positive Signal: Person-days declined from 389.09 crore (FY21 pandemic peak) to 183.77 crore in FY26 (till 31 Dec 2025) — a decline of over 53%. Rural unemployment fell from 3.3% (2020-21) to 2.5% (2023-24), suggesting shift to non-farm livelihoods.
MGNREGS — Key Features (Since 2005)
- Enacted: 2005; provides at least 100 days of guaranteed unskilled wage employment per rural household per year
- Women's participation: Rose from 48% (FY14) to 58.1% (FY25)
- Digital reforms: Aadhaar seeding, Aadhaar-Based Payment System (ABPS), electronic wage payments (nearly universal), geo-tagged asset monitoring
- Structural issues: Work not done on ground, machines used in labour-intensive works, bypassing digital attendance, misappropriation
- JAM trinity: Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile used for wage disbursement and transparency
VB G-RAM G Act, 2025 vs MGNREGS — Comparison
| Feature |
MGNREGS |
VB G-RAM G Act, 2025 |
| Days of Employment |
100 days/rural household/year |
125 days/rural household/year |
| Focus of Works |
Multiple, scattered categories |
4 priority areas: water security, rural infrastructure, livelihoods, climate/disaster resilience |
| Unemployment Allowance |
Payable; disentitlement clause existed |
Payable; disentitlement clause removed — rights-based |
| Pause Window |
None |
States can notify up to 60 days during sowing/harvesting seasons |
| Funding Approach |
Demand-based, unpredictable |
Demand-driven + state-wise normative allocation on objective development parameters |
| Local Planning |
GP planning central |
Gram Sabha-led Viksit GP Plans; spatial integration with PM Gati Shakti |
| Admin Expenditure Ceiling |
6% of total expenditure |
9% — supports staffing, training, tech |
| Asset Integration |
Local asset creation |
All assets in Viksit Bharat National Rural Infrastructure Stack |
| Wage Payment |
Irregular delays |
Weekly or within a fortnight of work completion |
| Monitoring |
Social audits, MIS |
Social audits every 6 months; GPS tracking; AI-enabled monitoring; biometric authentication |
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) — Rural Road Connectivity
| Phase |
Launch Year |
Objective |
Roads Sanctioned (km) |
Roads Completed (km) |
| PMGSY-I |
25 Dec 2000 |
All-weather connectivity to unconnected habitations (500+ in plains; 250+ in hills/NE) |
6,44,735 km (1,64,581 roads) + 7,453 bridges |
6,25,117 km (1,63,665 roads) + 7,210 bridges |
| PMGSY-II |
2013 |
Consolidate rural road network; improve efficiency |
49,791 km (6,664 roads) + 759 bridges |
49,087 km (6,612 roads) + 749 bridges |
| PMGSY-III |
July 2019 |
Consolidate 1,25,000 km; connect to GrAMs, schools, hospitals |
1,22,363 km (15,965 roads) + 3,211 bridges |
1,02,926 km (12,699 roads) + 1,734 bridges |
| PM-JANMAN Roads |
Under PM-JANMAN |
PVTG habitation connectivity |
7,324 km (2,495 roads) + 164 bridges |
1,314 km (263 roads) [as of 15 Jan 2026] |
PMGSY Coverage: As of 15 January 2026, more than 99.6% of eligible households have been provided road connectivity.
Innovation — Circular Economy in Roads: Chhattisgarh constructed a 5.5 km plastic waste-mixed bituminous road in Bastar district under PMGSY (Kawapal-Kalguda GPs, Jagdalpur). Of this, 1.2 km used non-recyclable plastic waste blended with bitumen — a first-of-its-kind 'Waste to Wealth' model aligned with SBM-Grameen Phase II.
PM Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G) — Housing for All
Launch: 1 April 2016
Target: 4.95 crore pucca houses with basic amenities to eligible rural households by 2029
Allocated Target: 4.14 crore houses to states/UTs
Sanctioned: 3.86 crore
Completed: 2.93 crore (current scheme)
Legacy (76.98 lakh) from earlier schemes also completed
Total Rural Houses (11 years): 3.70 crore
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) — Har Ghar Jal
Launch: August 2019
At launch, only 3.23 crore (17%) rural HH had tap connections.
By 20 November 2025: 15.74 crore HH (81.31%) covered (12.50 crore added).
WHO estimates: Daily time savings of 5.5 crore hours; prevention of ~4 lakh diarrhoeal deaths; savings of ~14 million DALYs.
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) institutionalised Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) as vehicles for grassroots democracy. Programmes like MGNREGS, DAY-NRLM, SBM, and Jal Jeevan Mission have embedded participatory approaches, enabling communities to shape development through local bodies, SHGs, and grassroots organisations.
Digital Governance
eGramSwaraj Portal
- Launched April 2020; single-window for GP profile
- Details of Sarpanch/Secretary, demography, finances, assets, GPDP activities
- Integrated with PFMS for secure real-time payments
- AuditOnline for transparent online audits
- 2.54 lakh GPs uploaded GPDP for FY25
- Till Oct 2024: 2.21 lakh GPs carried out online transactions worth ₹2,77,784 crore (since inception)
- eGramSwaraj-BHASHINI integration: services in 22 scheduled languages
AI Tool
SabhaSaar — AI for Gram Sabhas
- AI-enabled application for Gram Sabha documentation
- Auto-generates minutes of meetings
- As of Nov 2025: ~1 lakh GPs in 31 states/UTs
- 1.38 lakh Gram Sabhas conducted with automatic minutes
- Strengthens participatory democracy and local governance efficiency
Performance Index
Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI)
- Developed by MoPR to measure GP progress on LSDGs
- Covers over 2.5 lakh GPs
- 435 indicators (331 mandatory + 104 optional) mapped to 566 data points
- 9 LSDG themes including poverty-free livelihoods, healthy panchayat, child-friendly, water-sufficient, clean & green, self-sufficient infrastructure, socially just, good governance, women-friendly
- Promotes competitive federalism among Panchayats
Capacity Building
RGSA — Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan
- Centrally sponsored scheme launched April 2018; revamped 2022
- Strengthens PRIs to achieve SDGs; SDG localisation focus
- Emphasises convergence with Mission Antyodaya
- Special focus on Aspirational Districts
- 35 lakh+ participants trained in FY25
- NIRD&PR, SIRDs, ETCs are key training institutions
Land & Property
SVAMITVA Scheme
- Uses drone technology to map rural properties
- Issues legal ownership cards (property rights)
- Reduces land disputes; enables bank loans
- Drone survey completed in 3.28 lakh villages (target: 3.44 lakh)
- 2.76 crore property cards prepared for 1.82 lakh villages
Land Records
DILRMP — Digital Land Records
- Implemented since FY08
- Digitisation of Record of Rights (RoR): 99.8% completed
- Sub Registration Offices computerised: 95.73%
- ULPIN/Bhu-Aadhaar assigned to 36.67 crore land parcels
Own Source Revenue (OSR) for PRIs: PRIs rely on Central and State Finance Commission grants but many states lack rules enabling Panchayats to levy taxes. States like Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim, UP, and several UTs have no such provisions. MoPR is developing the Samarth application for tax demand generation and collaborating with IIM-A on capacity-building modules.
Village Commons (CPR): 2011 Census estimates India's common land at approximately 6.6 crore hectares. Village commons support livelihoods of ~35 crore rural people. Economic value of ecosystem services: USD 9.05 crore/year. Land degradation expanded from 94.53 Mha (2003-05) to 97.85 Mha (2018-19), adding ~2.2 lakh hectares annually (ISRO data). Mission Amrit Sarovar and SVAMITVA address restoration.
With ~26% of India's population aged 10-24, and nearly 26.8% of rural Indians being migrants (2020-21), the challenge is to revitalise the rural economy through self-reliant enterprises and skill development that generate local livelihoods.
DAY-NRLM (Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana — National Rural Livelihoods Mission)
Aims to reduce poverty through gainful self-employment and skilled wage employment. Built on four pillars:
- Social mobilisation: Promotion and strengthening of SHGs for rural poor women
- Financial inclusion: Bank linkages, Business Correspondents (Bank Sakhis), credit
- Sustainable livelihoods: Agriculture, enterprise, skill development
- Social inclusion: Entitlements convergence, social development
Over 9 lakh Community Resource Persons (CRPs) active at grassroots in agriculture, banking, insurance, and nutrition.
DAY-NRLM — Key Data Points (Till December 2025)
| Indicator |
Cumulative Progress |
| Number of Blocks covered |
7,156 |
| SHGs Promoted (in lakh) |
90.90 lakh |
| Households Mobilised (in crore) |
10.05 crore |
| Capitalisation Support to SHGs (₹ crore) |
₹62,453.85 crore |
| Bank Credit Accessed by SHGs (₹ lakh crore) |
₹11.92 lakh crore |
| Individual Enterprises (Startup Village Entrepreneurship Programme) |
4.02 lakh |
| Vehicles under Aajeevika Grameen Express Yojana |
2,300 |
| Mahila Kisan covered (in crore) |
4.92 crore |
| Custom Hiring Centres established |
36,205 |
| Households promoting agri-nutri gardens (in crore) |
3.34 crore |
| Bank Sakhi Women (financial service delivery) |
1.47 lakh |
| New Rural Businesses (non-farm enterprises) |
3.95 lakh |
| Gender Resource Centres |
5,500 |
| Lakhpati Didis target (Saras & Aajeevika Brand) |
3 Crore |
Skilling Programmes
DDU-GKY
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana
- State-led, PPP mode, demand-driven
- Targets financially vulnerable rural youth
- Emphasis on post-placement tracking, retention, career progression
- Independent third-party certification via Sector Skill Councils (NSDC)
RSETIs
Rural Self-Employment Training Institutes
- PPP initiative via sponsor banks + state governments
- Skill infrastructure in each district for rural youth (esp. BPL, DAY-NRLM HH)
- Focus on entrepreneurship development
- 629 RSETIs operational in 616 districts across 33 states/UTs
- Supported by 25 financial institutions
The Comprehensive Modular Survey: Telecom 2025 (NSS 80th Round, Jan-Mar 2025) confirms positive trends in rural digital access. Technology is bridging the 'digital divide' through mobile phones, satellite internet, and digital agricultural tools.
Drone Technology
SVAMITVA Scheme
- Drone survey in 3.28 lakh villages (target: 3.44 lakh)
- 2.76 crore property cards for 1.82 lakh villages
- Legal property rights reduce disputes; enable bank loans
Women Empowerment
Namo Drone Didi
- Trains rural women to operate drones
- Agricultural and land mapping tasks
- Boosts livelihoods and digital participation
- 1,094 drones distributed to SHG Drone Didis in 2023-24 by Lead Fertiliser Companies (500 under Namo Drone Didi)
Smart Village
Satnavari Smart Village, Maharashtra
- AI-powered alerts on soil, crops, weather
- Solar-powered smart irrigation with predictive insights
- Community drone spraying of fertilisers
- Transparent governance dashboards
- AI-driven learning modules and digital labs
- Telemedicine and e-health records
Rural Tech Hub
RuTAGe Smart Village Centre (RSVC)
- Inaugurated in Mandaura village, Sonipat
- Supports 15-20 villages with 12 technology tracks
- IoT for water monitoring, satellite agri-data, solar power, waste management, FinTech
- Community adoption via local entrepreneurs and KVK + NRLM collaboration
Health Tech
Telemedicine & Digital Health
- ASHABot, ASHA Kirana's M-CAT, ASHA Digital Health (mobile apps/AI chatbots)
- Front-line workers (ASHA, ANM, AWW) supported for rural health outreach
- Regular home visits and village health days focused on maternal & newborn care
- Potential to improve outcomes in underserved areas
Communication
Digital Governance Communication
- MoPR partnered with TVF for "Phulera Ka Panchayati Raj" series (3 episodes)
- Highlights own-source revenue, women's leadership, SVAMITVA
- Meri Panchayat App: mobile governance aggregating GP data for transparency
- eGramSwaraj-BHASHINI: services in 22 scheduled languages
Tribal Digital Agriculture Initiative — Smart Tribal Farming
A pilot project envisioned in clusters of 10-15 tribal villages across India in association with NGOs and higher educational institutions. Built on:
- Digital commodity value chains — market linkages for tribal produce
- Climate & risk management advisories
- Digital Agriculture Resource Information System — data-driven soil/health management
- Digitally mapped 'twin' villages — virtual replicas for planning
- Validated indigenous practices + support for sustainable natural farming
Economic value of India's forest natural services: estimated at ₹128 trillion per year (Krishnan, 2020). India has ~1.45 lakh tribal villages; tribals constitute 8.9% of total population.
PM-JANMAN — Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan (For PVTGs)
- Target beneficiaries: 75 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
- Coverage: 18 states and 1 UT
- Habitations: 28,700 PVTG habitations (100% saturation goal)
- Individuals covered: ~48.22 lakh individuals (12.28 lakh households)
- Roads under PM-JANMAN: 2,495 roads (7,324 km) + 164 bridges sanctioned; 263 roads (1,314 km) completed (15 Jan 2026)
- Aims to saturate all government schemes in PVTG habitations
NSAP — National Social Assistance Programme
- Social security for vulnerable BPL segments: old age, widows, disabled, bereaved
- Central NSAP covers 3.09 crore BPL beneficiaries
- State pension schemes cover additional 5.86 crore beneficiaries
- Total pension safety net: ~9 crore beneficiaries (Central + States)
- Annual expenditure: more than ₹1 lakh crore
- Aadhaar-based Digital Life Certification (DLC) launched July 2025: 47.76 lakh authenticated (as of 13 Jan 2026)
SMILE Scheme — Social Justice Ministry
- Full form: Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise
- Component 1 — Transgender persons:
- 23 Garima Grehs (shelter homes) in 17 states/UTs
- 20 Transgender Protection Cells; 27 Transgender Welfare Boards
- National Portal for Transgender Persons (certificates + ID cards)
- 30,386 certificates issued
- Equal Opportunities Policy issued
- Component 2 — Beggary rehabilitation:
- Covers 181 cities; 26,781 individuals identified
- 7,952 persons (incl. 1,317 children) rehabilitated
Key Social Justice Schemes — Summary Table
| Scheme |
Ministry |
Key Achievement (FY26 till Dec 2025) |
| Pre-Matric Scholarship for SCs |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
17.14 lakh beneficiaries; ₹359.47 crore released |
| Post-Matric Scholarship for SCs |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
34.42 lakh beneficiaries; ₹4,370.22 crore released |
| SHREYAS (Scholarships for Higher Education — SCs) |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
3,974 beneficiaries in India (₹166.98 Cr); 44 abroad (₹29.93 Cr) |
| PM Anusuchit Jaati Abhyuday Yojana (PMAJAY) |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
₹144.63 crore; 2,611 Adarsh Gram declared |
| Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY) — Senior Citizens |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
₹287.81 crore (Integrated Programme, State Action Plan, Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana, Elder Line) |
| Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
25.53 crore sensitised since Aug 2020; 20,000+ Master Volunteers |
| NAMASTE Scheme — Sanitation Workers |
Housing & Urban Affairs |
89,104 SSWs validated; 85,743 PPE kits; 84,309 waste pickers e-KYC validated |
| Forest Rights Act 2006 |
Tribal Affairs |
23.92 lakh individual + 1.22 lakh community titles; covering 233.48 lakh acres |
| Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (PMJVM) |
Tribal Affairs |
4,105 Kendras established; ~12 lakh beneficiaries in 28 states/UTs |
| Venture Capital Fund for SC & BC Startups |
Social Justice & Empowerment |
Supported over 160 enterprises |
| NSAP (National Social Assistance Programme) |
Rural Development |
3.09 Cr central + 5.86 Cr state = ~9 Cr beneficiaries; ₹1 lakh Cr annual expenditure |
NAMASTE — Rehabilitating Sanitation Workers
Context: The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 aimed to end manual scavenging. Supreme Court enhanced compensation for deaths of sanitation workers to ₹30 lakh and directed ban in 6 major metro cities.
NAMASTE Scheme (July 2023): National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem — aims to ensure safety and dignity of Sewer and Septic Tank Workers (SSWs). Focus: prevent hazardous cleaning, promote trained/certified workers, formalise rehabilitation.
- 89,104 SSWs validated and profiled
- 85,743 PPE kits + 653 Safety Device Kits for Emergency Response Sanitation Units
- Capital subsidy for 779 SSWs and dependents
- 84,309 waste pickers validated with e-KYC
- Over 70,000 SSWs covered under Ayushman Bharat – PM-JAY
Tribal Affairs — PM-JANMAN & Other Schemes:
Adi Karmyogi Abhiyaan — decentralised tribal leadership capacity building
DA-JGUA (Dharti Abha-Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan) — covers 63,000+ tribal villages for water, housing, education, healthcare, livelihoods (convergence with PMGSY-IV)
Eklavya Model Residential Schools — quality education for ST children in remote areas
Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Vikas Mission (PMJVM) — tribal entrepreneurship and MFP
Minorities Inclusion: Ministry of Minority Affairs implements for 6 notified communities (Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Parsi, Jain): Pre-Matric, Post-Matric, Merit-cum-Means scholarships; PM Virasat ka Samvardhan (employment); NMDFC loans; Jiyo Parsi (population reversal); Waqf development; PM Jan Vikas Karyakram (infrastructure).
Social Mobility — Types and Determinants
Inter-generational mobility: Changes in social/economic status across generations (parent to child).
Intra-generational mobility: Changes in a person's social/economic status during their own lifetime.
Key Determinants (both dimensions):
- Health — preventive and curative care, nutrition
- Education — access, quality, equity, lifelong learning
- Technology — digital empowerment, skill adaptation
- Work — opportunities, wages, working conditions
- Protection & Institutions — social protection, inclusive institutions
Low social mobility entrenches historical inequalities; higher income inequality fuels lower mobility — a vicious cycle that must be converted to virtuous.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) — Components
Measures non-monetary, acute deprivations across three dimensions:
- Health: Nutrition, child mortality
- Education: Years of schooling, school attendance
- Living Standards: Cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, assets
India's MPI Trend:
- 2005-06 (NFHS-3): 55.3%
- 2019-21 (NFHS-5): 14.96%
- 2022-23 (estimated): 11.28%
WB's Multidimensional Poverty Measure: 15.5% (2022-23) — adapts from OPHI MPI but excludes nutrition/health deprivations.
Graduation Approach — Anti-Poverty Programme
An evidence-informed, multi-component programme that combines:
- Asset transfers — productive assets for sustainable income
- Training — skills and capacity building
- Financial support — consumption support, credit linkage
- Coaching/mentoring — sustained hand-holding
- Health services — nutrition and healthcare access
Addresses multiple constraints simultaneously. Used in Bihar's SJY, Kerala EPEP, and Union government's Samaveshi Aajeevika Yojana under DAY-NRLM.
PM-JANMAN Scheme — PVTGs
Full name: Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan
- Targets 75 PVTGs in 18 states + 1 UT
- 28,700 PVTG habitations — 100% saturation goal for all schemes
- ~48.22 lakh individuals (12.28 lakh households)
- Roads: 2,495 roads (7,324 km) + 164 bridges sanctioned
- 263 roads (1,314 km) completed (15 Jan 2026)
- Complemented by DA-JGUA covering 63,000+ tribal villages
- Convergent with PMGSY-IV for connectivity
Elinor Ostrom's Principles for Common Pool Resource Management (Relevant for Village Commons)
The Survey references Ostrom's framework for sustainable management of village commons:
- Clearly defined boundaries for resources and users
- Congruence of local rules with local conditions
- Participatory rule modification for resource use
- Monitoring by community-accountable officials
- Graduated sanctions for violating rules
- Low-cost conflict resolution mechanisms
- Autonomy for local institutions
- Multiple interconnected layers of nested organisations
Combined with GIS-based registries and capacity building, this framework can arrest degradation and enable rejuvenation of commons.
UPSC Prelims Practice MCQs — Chapter 13
Q1. In June 2025, the World Bank revised its International Poverty Line (IPL). Which of the following correctly describes the revision?
- (a) From USD 1.90/day (2011 PPP) to USD 2.15/day (2017 PPP)
- (b) From USD 2.15/day to USD 3.00/day, adjusted to 2021 PPP prices
- (c) From USD 2.15/day (2017 PPP) to USD 3.65/day (2021 PPP)
- (d) From USD 3.00/day to USD 3.65/day at 2021 purchasing power
Correct: (b) The World Bank raised the IPL from USD 2.15 to USD 3.00 a day in June 2025, adjusted for purchasing power to 2021 prices. This reflected updated information from new household surveys, including India's HCES, and improved estimation methodology. Under the revised IPL, India's extreme poverty rate stood at 5.3% and lower-middle-income poverty at 23.9% in 2022-23.
Q2. According to NITI Aayog, the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) for India declined from 55.3% in 2005-06 to which value in 2022-23?
- (a) 14.96%
- (b) 15.5%
- (c) 11.28%
- (d) 21.9%
Correct: (c) The MPI as measured by NITI Aayog declined from 55.3% (NFHS-3, 2005-06) to 14.96% (NFHS-5, 2019-21) and is estimated to have further declined to 11.28% in 2022-23. The 15.5% figure is the World Bank's Multidimensional Poverty Measure (slightly different methodology). The 21.9% figure is the Tendulkar poverty line estimate for 2011-12.
Q3. The Viksit Bharat Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) Act, 2025 (VB G-RAM G), which replaced MGNREGS, introduced which of the following changes?
- (a) Increased guaranteed employment from 100 to 150 days per household per year
- (b) Increased guaranteed employment to 125 days; raised admin expenditure ceiling from 6% to 9%; allowed 60-day pause window during agricultural seasons
- (c) Increased guaranteed employment to 125 days but retained the disentitlement clause
- (d) Replaced demand-based funding entirely with fixed normative allocations irrespective of demand
Correct: (b) VB G-RAM G guarantees 125 days (up from 100) of unskilled employment per rural household per year. The admin ceiling is raised from 6% to 9%. States can notify 60 days of pause during peak sowing/harvesting seasons. The disentitlement clause was removed, making it a rights-based entitlement. Funding remains demand-driven but with normative state-wise allocations.
Q4. With reference to the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. PMGSY-I was launched on 25 December 2000 to connect habitations of 500+ persons in plains and 250+ in hilly/NE areas.
2. PMGSY-III was approved in July 2019 and targets consolidation of 1,25,000 km of rural routes.
3. As of January 2026, 99.6% of eligible households have been provided road connectivity under PMGSY-I.
Select the correct answer:
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1, 2 and 3
- (d) 1 and 3 only
Correct: (c) All three statements are accurate. PMGSY-I was launched on 25 Dec 2000 with the stated connectivity thresholds (Statement 1). PMGSY-III was approved in July 2019 targeting consolidation of 1,25,000 km (Statement 2). As of 15 January 2026, over 99.6% of eligible households had been provided connectivity (Statement 3). The chapter confirms all these data points.
Q5. With reference to DAY-NRLM's Self-Help Groups (SHGs), which of the following data is CORRECT as per Economic Survey 2025-26 (till December 2025)?
- (a) 65 lakh SHGs promoted; ₹8 lakh crore bank credit accessed
- (b) 75 lakh SHGs promoted; 8.5 crore households mobilised
- (c) 90.90 lakh SHGs promoted; 10.05 crore households mobilised; ₹11.92 lakh crore bank credit
- (d) 100 lakh SHGs promoted; 12 crore households mobilised; ₹15 lakh crore bank credit
Correct: (c) As per DAY-NRLM data till December 2025: 90.90 lakh SHGs promoted, 10.05 crore households mobilised, ₹62,453.85 crore capitalisation support, and ₹11.92 lakh crore bank credit accessed. Additionally, 1.47 lakh Bank Sakhis deliver financial services and 4.02 lakh individual enterprises set up under Startup Village Entrepreneurship Programme.
Q6. The Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI), developed by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, is built on which of the following?
- (a) 200 indicators mapped to 9 LSDG themes covering 1.5 lakh GPs
- (b) 300 mandatory indicators mapped to 12 LSDG themes covering all 2.68 lakh GPs
- (c) 435 indicators (331 mandatory + 104 optional) mapped to 566 data points across 9 LSDG themes covering 2.5 lakh+ GPs
- (d) 500 indicators mapped to 7 SDG themes covering 2 lakh GPs
Correct: (c) PAI is built on 435 unique local indicators (331 mandatory + 104 optional) mapped to 566 data points. It covers over 2.5 lakh GPs and is organised across 9 LSDG themes: poverty-free livelihoods, healthy panchayat, child-friendly, water-sufficient, clean & green, self-sufficient infrastructure, socially just, good governance, and women-friendly panchayat.
Q7. The SMILE scheme, implemented by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, is primarily aimed at:
- (a) Skill development for rural youth below the poverty line
- (b) Micro-loans for small and marginal farmers
- (c) Rehabilitation and support for transgender persons and persons engaged in begging
- (d) Livelihood support for women in self-help groups
Correct: (c) SMILE stands for Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise. It has two main components: (1) Rehabilitation for the welfare of transgender persons — including Garima Grehs, Transgender Protection Cells, National Portal, and ID cards; and (2) Comprehensive rehabilitation of persons engaged in begging — covering 181 cities, with 26,781 individuals identified and 7,952 rehabilitated.
Q8. With reference to PM-JANMAN scheme for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), consider the following statements:
1. PM-JANMAN targets 75 PVTGs across 18 states and 1 UT with 100% saturation of government schemes in 28,700 PVTG habitations.
2. The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) covers approximately 3.09 crore central beneficiaries, while states add another 5.86 crore through state pension schemes.
3. The Forest Rights Act, 2006 has enabled distribution of 23.92 lakh individual titles covering 233.48 lakh acres.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Correct: (d) All three statements are accurate as per Economic Survey 2025-26. Statement 1: PM-JANMAN covers 75 PVTGs in 18 states + 1 UT with 100% saturation goal in 28,700 habitations (~48.22 lakh individuals). Statement 2: NSAP covers 3.09 crore (central) + 5.86 crore (state) = ~9 crore total beneficiaries, with annual expenditure of over ₹1 lakh crore. Statement 3: Forest Rights Act 2006 has distributed 23.92 lakh individual + 1.22 lakh community titles covering 233.48 lakh acres.
