Question

Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century? Give reasons.

Answer 1

The sudden spurt in famines in colonial India from the mid-eighteenth century can be attributed to several interrelated factors driven largely by the policies and economic strategies of British colonial rule. Here are the key reasons for the increased frequency and severity of famines during this period:

1. Economic Policies and Land Revenue System

• High Land Revenue Demands:

  • The British introduced a heavy and rigid land revenue system, such as the Permanent Settlement in Bengal and the Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems elsewhere. These systems demanded high and fixed revenue from farmers, irrespective of agricultural productivity or crop failures.

• Focus on Revenue Collection:

  • The colonial administration prioritized revenue collection over the welfare of the peasantry, often confiscating land or produce if taxes were not paid, exacerbating poverty and food insecurity.

2. Commercialization of Agriculture

• Shift to Cash Crops:

  • The British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like cotton, indigo, opium, and jute for export, reducing the land available for food crops and thus impacting local food supply.

• Dependency on Global Markets:

  • The emphasis on cash crops made Indian agriculture increasingly dependent on global market demands and prices, which were volatile and affected the income stability of farmers.

3. Infrastructure and Transport

• Lack of Efficient Transportation:

  • Although the British built railways, the primary motive was to transport raw materials to ports for export rather than facilitating local trade and food distribution.

• Inadequate Infrastructure:

  • Poor infrastructure hindered the movement of food supplies from surplus to deficit regions, leading to localized shortages during times of scarcity.

4. Neglect of Traditional Systems

• Disruption of Traditional Grain Storage:

  • Traditional systems of grain storage and distribution, which had historically mitigated the impact of famines, were undermined by colonial policies favoring centralized control and export-oriented production.

• Decline of Local Governance:

  • The colonial administration replaced local governance structures that previously managed resources and mitigated famine impacts, leading to inefficiencies in response to food crises.

5. Environmental Factors

• Natural Disasters:

  • Periods of drought, monsoon failure, and other natural calamities exacerbated by environmental degradation due to colonial exploitation of natural resources contributed to food shortages.

• Overexploitation of Land:

  • Intensive agriculture practices and deforestation for commercial purposes led to soil degradation, reducing agricultural productivity.

6. Lack of Government Relief and Support

• Insufficient Relief Measures:

  • The British response to famines was often inadequate and delayed, with relief measures focused on maintaining order rather than providing effective aid.

• Famine Codes:

  • Although famine codes were established in the late 19th century, their implementation was inconsistent, and relief efforts often failed to reach the most affected populations.

7. Economic Drain

• Transfer of Wealth to Britain:

  • The economic policies of the British led to the drain of wealth from India to Britain, reducing the resources available for development and famine relief in India.

• Exploitation of Resources:

  • The extraction of resources for British industries left Indian agriculture underfunded and unable to cope with adverse conditions.

Conclusion

The spurt in famines in colonial India was primarily due to the exploitative economic and agricultural policies of the British, which prioritized revenue and export profits over the welfare of the Indian population. The disruption of traditional agricultural practices, coupled with inadequate relief efforts and environmental degradation, further exacerbated the impact of natural calamities, leading to severe and frequent famines. These famines highlighted the vulnerabilities created by colonial policies and the lack of resilience in the socio-economic systems under British rule.